Introduction
Since the beginning of the film era there have been many developments in the way in which we utilize various editing techniques The way in which we create and distribute films has changed dramatically over the years. In this post I will aim to discuss the history and origin of film-making as well as the principles of it.
The origin of cinema
Eadweard Muybridge
Eadweard Muybridge is seen as one of the main pioneers in motion cinema aswell as being a critically acclaimed photographer in the late 1800's. He was well known for experimenting with various types of photography such as time lapse. This is the main technique which formed the foundation of motion cinema. One of Muybridge's earliest examples of the time lapse technique would be his famous time lapse of the 'San Francisco mint.' During the building of this structure he set up a a tripod with his camera on outside were he lived in the city. He then set the camera to take continuously take images at a certain time during the construction. Each of these photos which we now know as a 'Frame' were placed into a device he invented called the zoopraxiscope.
"An example of Eadweard Muybridge's zoopraxiscope"
This device would work by placing each image from the time lapse or stop motion onto a disk. This disk would then revolve inside of the device projecting each image after one another in succession. When the images are projected at the corrected speed they appear to remain as a single moving image. This phenomena is known as 'persistence of vision' an illusion produced by every form of stop motion. This is were an image is presented to the viewer and then an after image slightly different to the previous one is shown shortly after. Each of these images are called frames and when more than 12 are presented in a second, the human brain accepts it as a moving image.
"Each frame is projected one after another to give the illusion of a moving silhouette"
After experimenting with this time lapse technique in San Fransisco he was beginning to get known for his experiments with moving images. This lead to him being hired by Leland Stanford to photograph a horse in motion. Stanford didn't believe that Muybridge could capture the animal lifting all four legs at once. Ofcause, he proved Stanford wrong and it became one of Muybridge's most famous pieces of work.
"Eadward Muybridges horse in motion"
"Each frame used to create the moving image"
Muybridge produced this moving image by setting up various cameras around the area which the horse was travelling Each of this cameras had a trip wire attached to them which activated them and took an image when the horse passed the wire. This laid the foundation of motion picture and is what inspired Thomas Edison to create the Kinetoscope and form the Motion Picture Patents Company.
Thomas Edison
After seeing the potential in moving images and motion picture Thomas Edison began working on his invention the Kinetoscope. This used the same principles as the zoopraxiscope. however, rather than it projecting an image to an audience it flicked through the images inside of a booth. Each of these booths would be designed for one person to use at a time and they would pay money to watch the moving image. This was a huge breakthrough in terms of motion cinema as the full photos could be presented on 35mm film strip as opposed to a silhouette.
"Images that would be presented on a Kinetoscope using 35mm film. This would later be the standard for motion cinema"
Editing in camera (Early form of editing)
This 'Peep hole' mechanism for the Kinetoscope was more of a prototype for presenting motion moving images. Eventually, this device developed into a projector which could present the viewer with full feature length film. This improved version was known as the 'Vitascope' . Due to this development many cinemas began to be built were people could watch these films. many other prototypes were designed such as the kinetephone. This was an early attempt of adding sound to moving images.
Thomas Edison was inspired to create these devices such as the kinetescope after visiting Eadward Muybridges. They spoke about partnering up however Edison never went through with this as he felt Muybridges 'Zoopraxiscope' wouldn't be practical for motion picture. Following the invention of the vitascope, Edison set up his own production production company (Edison motion pictures). He also formed the MPPC (Motion Picture Patents Company). Edison and his companies dominated the film industry in the late 1800's and earl 90's so much that anyone who would produce a film outside of his production company was seen as an independent film-maker. This is were the term 'Independent film' dates back to.
"The first film produced by Edison motion pictures using the kinetoscope"
Truth be told, Thomas Edison didn't produce all of his inventions or productions by himself (He was lazy and got other people to do work for him). Rather he had a team of fellow slaves inventors which assisted him in his productions and inventions. These were known as Edisons 'muckers' and were paid minimum working mans wage to work with Edison and his ideas. Although it wasn't a desirable wage many of his assistants did it for the joy of working with the man as he was seen as inspirational. Frank Dyer, one of Edisons muckers organise the general film company in 1910. This company distributed films to cinemas around the world. The General film company was formed very shortly after Motion Picture Patents Company in 1909. This was formed to eliminate budget cuts in the film industry by allowing producers to patent their work.
"Thomas Edison's muckers stood outside his orange lab complex"
And with all of these progressions in technology and video techniques, video production began to kick of in the early 90's. Many developments came in the following years which boosted the film industry into the modern age. If it wasn't for these pioneers and inventors we wouldn't have the films which we know and love today. Well someone else probably would have invented it but that's besides the point. With the birth of this huge industry eventually many editing techniques started rising which could refine the films. Editing was the missing piece in the development of the film industry. In the rest of this post I will discuss the purpose of editing films as well as the development of editing.
Before the boom of the digital age the editing process was very tedious or just wasn't possible at all (especially in cinema's early stages.) Most forms of editing such as placing two separate clips together had to be done manually. This would consist of cutting up film and then sticking it back together. Of cause, this took a substantial amount of time and patience to do successfully so other ways were developed. One of these techniques was the idea of editing in camera. This means that you work out every shot you need before hand and film the entire movie in a within a small amount of scenes. The in and out points of each scene will also have been worked out so that each scene will flow smoothly to the next. The theory behind this was that it would make the film look more natural or less artificial by producing a more 'Live-action' feeling. Not to mention it was easier than manually cutting up separate parts of film reel and using various chemicals for transitions. This technique followed through to even the more modern era due to the ideology of it making less superficial looking pieces of film.
The clip above is a scene from 'Rope' a film made by critically acclaimed director 'Alfred Hitchcock.' This is one of the more notable films created using in camera editing techniques. This 1948 film managed to achieve a full feature length production through Hitchcock's use of long uninterrupted shots. Each scene in the film lasts anywhere up to ten minutes and this can be scene from the use of panning shots as oppose to cutting to various angles. As you can see from the clip above this technique has been used flawlessly. I feel it is very effective in keeping the viewer immersed in the action which is my many film-makers still use it today regardless of improvements of editing interfaces.
The clip above shows a short film created in the modern age using in camera editing. As you can see it creates stunning visuals with a gritty undertone due to the camera quality.
Overall, in camera editing was a huge step in the development of editing. Not merely because of the technical aspects but also how it changed film-makers perceptions on how a film should look. It opened up new possibilities and ideals that a scene can be shown from various different perspectives rather than one. This for of editing is what I believe to be the ultimate foundation of the techniques and conventions used within the industry today.
Linear Editing
Linear editing refers to when the editor will manually edit clips together through the use of a pure mechanical process. As I mentioned earlier, cutting up film and re-assembling it was a re-occurring theme throughout the early years of film-making. This transition into eras as late as the 1940's. Eventually a man names Iwan Serrurier invented a machine known as 'The Moviola' in 1924. Although the machines purpose was still to cut up and re-assemble film, it eliminated the need of doing it by hand.
"Norman McLaren uses a Moviola editing machine to coordinate the sound and images for the film A Chairy Tale."
For a long period of time using the moviolo was near enough essential for industry standard films. However, In 1945 the German company Steenbeck created a more developed machine similar to the moviola. This then became the new industry standard and almost every film soon began being edited on the steenbeck.
These machines were another aspect of editing which revolutionised the film industry as a whole. Mainly because it paved the way for more technical editing techniques and really showed film-makers the sheer capabilities of editing.
The invention of editing
"Star Wars was one of the few films attempted to be edited using the EditDroid"
"Two video editors using Avid, the worlds first computerised Non-Linear editing system."
The video clip above is a scene from the 2000 film 'Requiem For A Dream.' I have used this as an example as I feel it shows two different extremes in term of pace. As you can see from the first part of the scene the characters are preparing and taking the drug. This is shown extremely fast in a short amount of clips. Each clip is also an extreme close up of various body parts as well as equipment used in the process. This is effective as it shows the intensity of the process and conveys the idea that they are used to this and it has almost became habitual. However, after these extreme close-ups it instantly cuts to both character sat together experiencing the high. This is were the pace abruptly slows down and gives the viewer an idea of how they feel. This reinforces the idea of the characters being very relaxed and in an intense euphoria due to the drug. Also as you can see at the end a slow transition is used to also convey this slow pace and give the viewer the idea of time passing by.
Combining shots into sequence to engage the viewer
By this I mean when editing is used in order to reveal various aspects of the story to the viewer through the use of visuals and clever editing techniques alone. This is an effective way of story-telling as it can answer any questions the viewer has about the plot-line without having to resort to extensive amounts of dialogue Often shots will be put together showing different perspectives and vantage points such as extreme close ups and panning shots. This can help convey meanings (Also seen in the 'Requiem For A Dream' Clip.)
The clip above from the 2008 movie 'In Bruges' is a perfect example of this techniques being used in a more fast paced way. As you can see through the use of editing the clips are quickly switching between the man walking and the park a the beginning This makes the viewers wonder 'Were is he going ?' or 'What is he going to do.' However, these questions are slowly answered though the use of the visuals for example a close up of the gun is shown. This signals to the viewer that he is going to shoot someone. Shortly after a shot of the man he is going to kill is shown. This answers more of the viewers queries without the need for any dialogue whatsoever. This technique is continued to be shown throughout this clip right up until the dialogue comes in. This is very effective as within the space of about thirty seconds the audience already know what is about to happen.
This technique can be seen being used in the 1974 film the godfather (As seen above.) As you can see this is a very effective technique of keeping the viewer immersed during a dialogue scene with no interruptions Unless you are looking for it you wouldn't often acknowledge the fact that your point of view is being changed due to how smoothly it flows.
Montage
A montage is a series of clips usually based on one character or a series of characters which shows there development through a specific time period. Often there will be a soundtrack or score in the background in order to convey the general them or feeling of the specific scene.
The clip above from the movie 'Goodfellas' is a great example of a montage being used in a movie. It sums up aspects of the story in a very short amount of time which is very useful in film production. Say for example you protagonist needs to complete a long project then a montage is effective for showing this visually in a matter of minutes rather than wasting running time. Montages have been used a lot in films mainly in the 80's and 90's. Therefore, many people see them as cliché and are often poked fun at in other films or television programmes. This is usually done by putting generic inspirational music over the top mixed with scenes of the characters development.
The invention of editing
Recording on film was the only way of creating films and moving images up until 1951 when the video tape was invented by the AMPEX research team. By the year 1956 they had created the worlds first video tape recorder and editing systems. This allowed for a television program of up to an hour be recorded on one reel of tape. It also eliminated the need for psychically cutting tape when editing as data could be copied from one control deck to another. This allowed editors to distinguish the in and out points much easier as they didn't have to cut apart film neither did they have to work it out before hand by editing in camera. Although this was a massive step in the film editing industry the quality was not near enough good for cinema. Therefore, it remained the industry standard when creating and editing television programmes.
"The AMPEX VR-3000 a machine used primarily for television production"
The first feature length film to be shot using video was in 1987 with 'Julia and Julia.' The whole film was shot using Sony's first professional camera the 'Sony HDVS.' The data from the camera was also converted into film reel so it could be shown on the big screen as well as being transferred to the newly invented VHS. These are the big video tapes which you sometimes still see today (Although, now deemed obsolete with the invention of DVD.) This meant finally the public had a means of watching full feature length films from the comfort of there own homes.
"One of the first professional video cameras developed by Sony"
The invention of video brought the film and television industry into a new age allowing more complex forms of editing as well as more efficient formats. It was only a matter of time before eventually all video would be digital.
Non-Linear Editing Systems
There were many early attempts of non-linear editing systems in the 1970's and 80's however few of them were successful and never commercialized. Lucas films developed the non-destructive alternative to editing with the 'EditDroid' in the early 80's. However, somewhat like it predecessors it never really kicked of and was rarely used within the film industry.
"Star Wars was one of the few films attempted to be edited using the EditDroid"
It was clear that Non-Linear editing was the way forward due to it's non-destructive properties in terms of editing. Due to this in the year 1989 the first computerised editing system finally hit the commercial market. The system was 'Avid' a system allowing digital information of clips to be edited without damaging the original files (Non-Destructive editing). This was the first system in which data from video could be placed on a virtual timeline. This allowed for much more sophisticated editing and ways of manipulating video never sought possible in the early ages of film.
Non-Linear editing is a form of editing which we still use today when creating pieces of video whether they be for film or television. Of cause, This eventually beckoned in much more sophisticated editing programmes to accompany new types of computer hardware and software which began to dominate the modern market. More recent editing systems are ones such as 'Adobe Première' or 'Final Cut Pro.'
"Final cut is one of the pieces of software which is often used today as a means of professional editing"
The purpose of editing
I have spent a lot of time discussing the history of editing but have not yet explained why it is that film-maker need to edit. Of cause there is a purpose to it otherwise there would be no need and films would just be distributed as raw recordings. As a whole, the main purpose of editing is to convey effective story-telling. Placing specific clips after or before others presents the viewer with various aspects of the story visually. Without editing a film would have no structure and the audience would be left confused as to what is going on. Editing allows us to control the viewers pint of view b showing scenes from various perspectives. this means ideals as well as emotions can be conveyed due to how techniques are utilized.
Genre
The genre of a film is what distinguishes it from others. There are various types of genres such as drama, horror, Sci-Fi and so on. Genres are often split into 'Sub-Genres' which can break them down into even more niche audiences such as 'Slasher' movies. Of cause different techniques are used in terms of editing depending on what genre the particular piece of video is.
"A graph depicting the most successful movie genres by Gross-cost ration in the year 2008"
Pace and rhythm
Pace and rhythm refers to how fast each clip is cut to as well as the space between each particular scene or transition. Usually a faster pace will be used in a more action packed scene to show intensity or make the viewer feel uneasy and immersed within what is happening. this makes the audience aware of what the characters in the scene are meant to be feeling as well as the conveying the general theme of the film. The rhythm and pace will determine heavily on the context of the particular scene and how you want your viewers to feel.
The video clip above is a scene from the 2000 film 'Requiem For A Dream.' I have used this as an example as I feel it shows two different extremes in term of pace. As you can see from the first part of the scene the characters are preparing and taking the drug. This is shown extremely fast in a short amount of clips. Each clip is also an extreme close up of various body parts as well as equipment used in the process. This is effective as it shows the intensity of the process and conveys the idea that they are used to this and it has almost became habitual. However, after these extreme close-ups it instantly cuts to both character sat together experiencing the high. This is were the pace abruptly slows down and gives the viewer an idea of how they feel. This reinforces the idea of the characters being very relaxed and in an intense euphoria due to the drug. Also as you can see at the end a slow transition is used to also convey this slow pace and give the viewer the idea of time passing by.
Combining shots into sequence to engage the viewer
By this I mean when editing is used in order to reveal various aspects of the story to the viewer through the use of visuals and clever editing techniques alone. This is an effective way of story-telling as it can answer any questions the viewer has about the plot-line without having to resort to extensive amounts of dialogue Often shots will be put together showing different perspectives and vantage points such as extreme close ups and panning shots. This can help convey meanings (Also seen in the 'Requiem For A Dream' Clip.)
The clip above from the 2008 movie 'In Bruges' is a perfect example of this techniques being used in a more fast paced way. As you can see through the use of editing the clips are quickly switching between the man walking and the park a the beginning This makes the viewers wonder 'Were is he going ?' or 'What is he going to do.' However, these questions are slowly answered though the use of the visuals for example a close up of the gun is shown. This signals to the viewer that he is going to shoot someone. Shortly after a shot of the man he is going to kill is shown. This answers more of the viewers queries without the need for any dialogue whatsoever. This technique is continued to be shown throughout this clip right up until the dialogue comes in. This is very effective as within the space of about thirty seconds the audience already know what is about to happen.
Conventions and techniques used
There are many conventions and techniques that are used throughout films. You may not have realised but many films will use generally the same techniques which have been used and developed throughout the years. Therefore, it is very important to know these. After all, you have to learn the rules before you can break them.
Shot-Reverse-shot (180 Degree rule)
This is a technique used primarily in dialogue scenes and can be seen in countless amounts of film and television production. This is were the POV moves from one person to the other (hens it's extensive use in dialogue.) However, the shot of each person should be on the opposite side of the screen to the previous shot of the other character. So basically, during a piece of dialogue one character will be talking on the left side of the screen. Then when the next character is speaking they should be on the right side of the scene. In theory this should make the scene run more smoothly and not break the flow of the conversation visually.
This technique can be seen being used in the 1974 film the godfather (As seen above.) As you can see this is a very effective technique of keeping the viewer immersed during a dialogue scene with no interruptions Unless you are looking for it you wouldn't often acknowledge the fact that your point of view is being changed due to how smoothly it flows.
Montage
A montage is a series of clips usually based on one character or a series of characters which shows there development through a specific time period. Often there will be a soundtrack or score in the background in order to convey the general them or feeling of the specific scene.
The clip above from the movie 'Goodfellas' is a great example of a montage being used in a movie. It sums up aspects of the story in a very short amount of time which is very useful in film production. Say for example you protagonist needs to complete a long project then a montage is effective for showing this visually in a matter of minutes rather than wasting running time. Montages have been used a lot in films mainly in the 80's and 90's. Therefore, many people see them as cliché and are often poked fun at in other films or television programmes. This is usually done by putting generic inspirational music over the top mixed with scenes of the characters development.
Conclusions
All in all, video editing has progressed vastly over the years from back when we were manually having to cut up film. Now anyone can pick up a camera and some editing software and make a film by themselves without needing a huge Hollywood budget. As the artist Andy Warhol once said, "In the future, everyone will be famous for 15 minutes." I truly think this is possible with the revolutionary technology we have at our disposal. With the internet and the phenomena that is Youtube everyone has the potential to have there fifteen minutes of fame.
