The developments and principles of editing

Introduction

Since the beginning of the film era there have been many developments in the way in which we utilize various editing techniques  The way in which we create and distribute films has changed dramatically over the years. In this post I will aim to discuss the history and origin of film-making as well as the principles of it.

The origin of cinema

Eadweard Muybridge

Eadweard Muybridge is seen as one of the main pioneers in motion cinema aswell as being a critically acclaimed photographer in the late 1800's. He was well known for experimenting with various types of photography such as time lapse. This is the main technique which formed the foundation of motion cinema. One of Muybridge's earliest examples of the time lapse technique would be his famous time lapse of the 'San Francisco mint.' During the building of this structure he set up a a tripod with his camera on outside were he lived in the city. He then set the camera to take continuously take images at a certain time during the construction.  Each of these photos which we now know as a 'Frame' were placed into a device he invented called the zoopraxiscope.

 

"An example of Eadweard Muybridge's zoopraxiscope"

This device would work by placing each image from the time lapse or stop motion onto a disk. This disk would then revolve inside of the device projecting each image after one another in succession. When the images are projected at the corrected speed they appear to remain as a single moving image. This phenomena is known as 'persistence of vision' an illusion produced by every form of stop motion. This is were an image is presented to the viewer and then an after image slightly different to the previous one is shown shortly after. Each of these images are called frames and when more than 12 are presented in a second, the human brain accepts it as a moving image.

"Each frame is projected one after another to give the illusion of a moving silhouette"

After experimenting with this time lapse technique in San Fransisco he was beginning to get known for his experiments with moving images. This lead to him being hired by Leland Stanford to photograph a horse in motion. Stanford didn't believe that Muybridge could capture the animal lifting all four legs at once. Ofcause, he proved Stanford wrong and it became one of Muybridge's most famous pieces of work.

 

"Eadward Muybridges horse in motion"

"Each frame used to create the moving image"

Muybridge produced this moving image by setting up various cameras around the area which the horse was travelling  Each of this cameras had a trip wire attached to them which activated them and took an image when the horse passed the wire. This laid the foundation  of motion picture and is what inspired Thomas Edison to create the Kinetoscope and form the Motion Picture Patents Company. 

Thomas Edison

After seeing the potential in moving images and motion picture Thomas Edison began working on his invention the Kinetoscope. This used the same principles as the zoopraxiscope. however, rather than it projecting an image to an audience it flicked through the images inside of a booth. Each of these booths would be designed for one person to use at a time and they would pay money to watch the moving image. This was a huge breakthrough in terms of motion cinema as the full photos could be presented on 35mm film strip as opposed to a silhouette.

 "Images that would be presented on a Kinetoscope using 35mm film. This would later be the standard for motion cinema"

This 'Peep hole' mechanism for the Kinetoscope was more of a prototype for presenting motion moving images. Eventually, this device developed into a projector which could present the viewer with full feature length film. This improved version was known as the 'Vitascope' . Due to this development many cinemas began to be built were people could watch these films. many other prototypes were designed such as the kinetephone. This was an early attempt of adding sound to moving images.

Thomas Edison was inspired to create these devices such as the kinetescope after visiting Eadward Muybridges. They spoke about partnering up however Edison never went through with this as he felt Muybridges 'Zoopraxiscope' wouldn't be practical for motion picture. Following the invention of the vitascope, Edison set up his own production production company (Edison motion pictures). He also formed the MPPC (Motion Picture Patents Company). Edison and his companies dominated the film industry in the late 1800's and earl 90's so much that anyone who would produce a film outside of his production company was seen as an independent film-maker. This is were the term 'Independent film' dates back to.

"The first film produced by Edison motion pictures using the kinetoscope"



Truth be told, Thomas Edison didn't produce all of his inventions or productions by himself (He was lazy and got other people to do work for him). Rather he had a team of fellow slaves inventors which assisted him in his productions and inventions. These were known as Edisons 'muckers' and were paid minimum working mans wage to work with Edison and his ideas. Although it wasn't a desirable wage many of his assistants did it for the joy of working with the man as he was seen as inspirational. Frank Dyer, one of Edisons muckers organise the general film company in 1910. This company distributed films to cinemas around the world. The General film company was formed very shortly after Motion Picture Patents Company in 1909. This was formed to eliminate budget cuts in the film industry by allowing producers to patent their work.

"Thomas Edison's muckers stood outside his orange lab complex"

And with all of these progressions in technology and video techniques, video production began to kick of in the early 90's. Many developments came in the following years which boosted the film industry into the modern age. If it wasn't for these pioneers and inventors we wouldn't have the films which we know and love today. Well someone else probably would have invented it but that's besides the point. With the birth of this huge industry eventually many editing techniques started rising which could refine the films. Editing was the missing piece in the development of the film industry. In the rest of this post I will discuss the purpose of editing films as well as the development of editing.

Editing in camera (Early form of editing)

Before the boom of the digital age the editing process was very tedious or just wasn't possible at all (especially in cinema's early stages.) Most forms of editing such as placing two separate clips together had to be done manually. This would consist of cutting up film and then sticking it back together. Of cause, this took a substantial amount of time and patience to do successfully so other ways were developed. One of these techniques was the idea of editing in camera. This means that you work out every shot you need before hand and film the entire movie in a within a small amount of scenes. The in and out points of each scene will also have been worked out so that each scene will flow smoothly to the next. The theory behind this was that it would make the film look more natural or less artificial by producing a more 'Live-action' feeling. Not to mention it was easier than manually cutting up separate parts of film reel and using various chemicals for transitions. This technique followed through to even the more modern era due to the ideology of it making less superficial looking pieces of film.

The clip above is a scene from 'Rope' a film made by critically acclaimed director 'Alfred Hitchcock.' This is one of the more notable films created using in camera editing techniques. This 1948 film managed to achieve a full feature length production through Hitchcock's use of long uninterrupted shots. Each scene in the film lasts anywhere up to ten minutes and this can be scene from the use of panning shots as oppose to cutting to various angles. As you can see from the clip above this technique has been used flawlessly. I feel it is very effective in keeping the viewer immersed in the action which is my many film-makers still use it today regardless of improvements of editing interfaces.

 

The clip above shows a short film created in the modern age using in camera editing. As you can see it creates stunning visuals with a gritty undertone due to the camera quality.

Overall, in camera editing was a huge step in the development of editing. Not merely because of the technical aspects but also how it changed film-makers perceptions on how a film should look. It opened up new possibilities and ideals that a scene can be shown from various different perspectives rather than one. This for of editing is what I believe to be the ultimate foundation of  the techniques and conventions used within the industry today.

Linear Editing

Linear editing refers to when the editor will manually edit clips together through the use of a pure mechanical process. As I mentioned earlier, cutting up film and re-assembling it was a re-occurring theme throughout the early years of film-making. This transition into eras as late as the 1940's. Eventually a man names Iwan Serrurier invented a machine known as 'The Moviola' in 1924. Although the machines purpose was still to cut up and re-assemble film, it eliminated the need of doing it by hand.

"Norman McLaren uses a Moviola editing machine to coordinate the sound and images for the film A Chairy Tale." 

For a long period of time using the moviolo was near enough essential for industry standard films. However, In 1945 the German company Steenbeck created a more developed machine similar to the moviola. This then became the new industry standard and almost every film soon began being edited on the steenbeck.

These machines were another aspect of editing which revolutionised the film industry as a whole.  Mainly because it paved the way for more technical editing techniques and really showed film-makers the sheer capabilities of editing.


The invention of editing

Recording on film was the only way of creating films and moving images up until 1951 when the video tape was invented by the AMPEX research team. By the year 1956 they had created the worlds first video tape recorder and editing systems. This allowed for a television program of up to an hour be recorded on one reel of tape. It also eliminated the need for psychically cutting tape when editing as data could be copied from one control deck to another. This allowed editors to distinguish the in and out points much easier as they didn't have to cut apart film neither did they have to work it out before hand by editing in camera. Although this was a massive step in the film editing industry the quality was not near enough good for cinema. Therefore, it remained the industry standard when creating and editing television programmes.

"The AMPEX VR-3000 a machine used primarily for television production"

The first feature length film to be shot using video was in 1987 with 'Julia and Julia.' The whole film was shot using Sony's first professional camera the 'Sony HDVS.' The data from the camera was also converted into film reel so it could be shown on the big screen as well as being transferred to the newly invented VHS. These are the big video tapes which you sometimes still see today (Although, now deemed obsolete with the invention of DVD.) This meant finally the public had a means of watching full feature length films from the comfort of there own homes.

"One of the first professional video cameras developed by Sony"

The invention of video brought the film and television industry into a new age allowing more complex forms of editing as well as more efficient formats. It was only a matter of time before eventually all video would be digital.

Non-Linear Editing Systems

There were many early attempts of non-linear editing systems in the 1970's and 80's however few of them were successful and never commercialized. Lucas films developed the non-destructive alternative to editing with the 'EditDroid' in the early 80's. However, somewhat like it predecessors it never really kicked of and was rarely used within the film industry.

"Star Wars was one of the few films attempted to be edited using the EditDroid"

It was clear that Non-Linear editing was the way forward due to it's non-destructive properties in terms of editing. Due to this in the year 1989 the first computerised editing system finally hit the commercial market. The system was 'Avid' a system allowing digital information of clips to be edited without damaging the original files (Non-Destructive editing). This was the first system in which data from video could be placed on a virtual timeline. This allowed for much more sophisticated editing and ways of manipulating video never sought possible in the early ages of film.

"Two video editors using Avid, the worlds first computerised Non-Linear editing system."

Non-Linear editing is a form of editing which we still use today when creating pieces of video whether they be for film or television. Of cause, This eventually beckoned in much more sophisticated editing programmes to accompany new types of computer hardware and software which began to dominate the modern market. More recent editing systems are ones such as 'Adobe Première' or 'Final Cut Pro.'

"Final cut is one of the pieces of software which is often used today as a means of professional editing" 

The purpose of editing

I have spent a lot of time discussing the history of editing but have not yet explained why it is that film-maker need to edit. Of cause there is a purpose to it otherwise there would be no need and films would just be distributed as raw recordings. As a whole, the main purpose of editing is to convey effective story-telling. Placing specific clips after or before others  presents the viewer with various aspects of the story visually. Without editing a film would have no structure and the audience would be left confused as to what is going on. Editing allows us to control the viewers pint of view b showing scenes from various perspectives. this means ideals as well as emotions can be conveyed due to how techniques are utilized.

Genre

The genre of a film is what distinguishes it from others. There are various types of genres such as drama, horror, Sci-Fi and so on. Genres are often split into 'Sub-Genres' which can break them down into even more niche audiences such as 'Slasher' movies. Of cause different techniques are used in terms of editing depending on what genre the particular piece of video is.

"A graph depicting the most successful movie genres by Gross-cost ration in the year 2008"

Pace and rhythm

Pace and rhythm refers to how fast each clip is cut to as well as the space between each particular scene or transition. Usually a faster pace will be used in a more action packed scene to show intensity or make the viewer feel uneasy and immersed within what is happening. this makes the audience aware of what the characters in the scene are meant to be feeling as well as the conveying the general theme of the film. The rhythm and pace will determine heavily on the context of the particular scene and how you want your viewers to feel.

The video clip above is a scene from the 2000 film 'Requiem For A Dream.' I have used this as an example as I feel it shows two different extremes in term of pace. As you can see from the first part of the scene the characters are preparing and taking the drug. This is shown extremely fast in a short amount of clips. Each clip is also an extreme close up of various body parts as well as equipment used in the process. This is effective as it shows the intensity of the process and conveys the idea that they are used to this and it has almost became habitual. However, after these extreme close-ups it instantly cuts to both character sat together experiencing the high. This is were the pace abruptly slows down and gives the viewer an idea of how they feel. This reinforces the idea of the characters being very relaxed and in an intense euphoria due to the drug. Also as you can see at the end a slow transition is used to also convey this slow pace and give the viewer the idea of time passing by.

Combining shots into sequence to engage the viewer

By this I mean when editing is used in order to reveal various aspects of the story to the viewer through the use of visuals and clever editing techniques alone. This is an effective way of story-telling as it can answer any questions the viewer has about the plot-line without having to resort to extensive amounts of dialogue  Often shots will be put together showing different perspectives and vantage points such as extreme close ups and panning shots. This can help convey meanings (Also seen in the 'Requiem For A Dream' Clip.)

The clip above from the 2008 movie 'In Bruges' is a perfect example of this techniques being used in a more fast paced way. As you can see through the use of editing the clips are quickly switching between the man walking and the park a the beginning  This makes the viewers wonder 'Were is he going ?' or 'What is he going to do.' However, these questions are slowly answered though the use of the visuals for example a close up of the gun is shown. This signals to the viewer that he is going to shoot someone. Shortly after a shot of the man he is going to kill is shown. This answers more of the viewers queries without the need for any dialogue whatsoever. This technique is continued to be shown throughout this clip right up until the dialogue comes in. This is very effective as within the space of about thirty seconds the audience already know what is about to happen.

Conventions and techniques used

There are many conventions and techniques that are used throughout films. You may not have realised but many films will use generally the same techniques which have been used and developed throughout the years. Therefore, it is very important to know these. After all, you have to learn the rules before you can break them.

Shot-Reverse-shot (180 Degree rule)

This is a technique used primarily in dialogue scenes and can be seen in countless amounts of film and television production. This is were the POV moves from one person to the other (hens it's extensive use in dialogue.) However, the shot of each person should be on the opposite side of the screen to the previous shot of the other character. So basically, during a piece of dialogue one character will be talking on the left side of the screen. Then when the next character is speaking they should be on the right side of the scene. In theory this should make the scene run more smoothly and not break the flow of the conversation visually.

This technique can be seen being used in the 1974 film the godfather (As seen above.) As you can see this is a very effective technique of keeping the viewer immersed during a dialogue scene with no interruptions  Unless you are looking for it you wouldn't often acknowledge the fact that your point of view is being changed due to how smoothly it flows.

Montage

A montage is a series of clips usually based on one character or a series of characters which shows there development through a specific time period. Often there will be a soundtrack or score in the background in order to convey the general them or feeling of the specific scene.

The clip above from the movie 'Goodfellas' is a great example of a montage being used in a movie. It sums up aspects of the story in a very short amount of time which is very useful in film production. Say for example you protagonist needs to complete a long project then a montage is effective for showing this visually in a matter of minutes rather than wasting running time. Montages have been used a lot in films mainly in the 80's and 90's. Therefore, many people see them as cliché and are often poked fun at in other films or television programmes. This is usually done by putting generic inspirational music over the top mixed with scenes of the characters development.

Conclusions

All in all, video editing has progressed vastly over the years from back when we were manually having to cut up film. Now anyone can pick up a camera and some editing software and make a film by themselves without needing a huge Hollywood budget. As the artist Andy Warhol once said, "In the future, everyone will be famous for 15 minutes." I truly think this is possible with the revolutionary technology we have at our disposal. With the internet and the phenomena that is Youtube everyone has the potential to have there fifteen minutes of fame.

Codes and conventions of corporate and promotional videos

Introduction
 

A corporate video refers to when a production company is commissioned by an other Organisations to create a video package. These videos are normally very conventional by nature and are used to promote a business or product. The majority of corporate videos are not designed to be broadcasted to a massive public audience. Rather, they are showed at events or presented to the businesses specific stakeholders. In this report I will be explaining the codes and conventions regarding corporate and promotional videos.
 

Purpose of corporate videos
 

A corporate video is always designed for a specific function based on what the organisation has commissioned the production company to produce. The purpose of the video varies depending on what the client is asking for. Although, as I have stated the majority of the time it is to promote or persuade people towards the product or business. 

As you can see from the video above, similar to most corporate videos it's purpose is to promote the product. This is an overall generic corporate video which will have been probably presented at a specific business event. Due to the linear and simple structure of it we are brought to believe this has a set target audience. This may be stakeholders which are relevant to the product which the company is selling. Therefore, this package is straight forward consisting of interviews and testimonies in order to persuade other companies in the specific industry to invest.

The target audience is defined by the format in which the video package is going to be presented as well as who and where is will be shown. For example the 'Investa pumps pvt. corporate video' is created for stakeholders in construction and water type industries. Due to this, the package presents the company and shows the audience what the company can do for them.

Product launch/ marketing



A product launch video basically acts similar to how a commercial or advertisement would. In short it is the idea of selling a product through the use of a video package. This can be done in many ways however the style of the video relies mainly on the target audience. As you can see from the video above it caters for their target audience. Their target audience being the deaf therefore they make this apparent by subtitling the video. This shows that the video is aimed at individuals suffering from loss of hearing or those effected by it. There are also a range of testimonies from teachers and students. This portrays that the product is aimed mainly at deaf students so that they can interact better in class. The vox pops and testimonies re-enforce the fact that it is a helpful and efficient product, designed to help people.

Promotion of key ideological messages and values



The promotion of key ideological messages and values is seen a lot in videos that are based on a cause. These types of videos are normally depicting political or charitable values and promote the cause itself. These video packages will have a set purpose and attempt to communicate to the audience through the use of specific messages. As you can see from the video above it communicates to the audience by shocking them. This therefore, make them feel empathy towards children with a disability. This is due to the distress which the child in the video appears to be in. Making the viewer feel these emotions automatically begins to persuade the audience to partake in the cause. This is due to the shock value and how the video is presented. To begin with the video has a very gritty and dismal feel to it when the child is suffering. However, when the charity is presented within the video the shots get a lot brighter than they were originally. This portrays the idea of a 'brighter day' or a new start. Ultimately giving us the idea that this charity make peoples lives happier and more vibrant.

Internal communications



An internal communications video is a video package which is shown to important stake-holders within the industry in which the product is aimed at. These are normally played at conferences or events in which these important members of the industry will be attending. As you can see from the video above internal communication videos are often very conventional and are used more to communicate with stake-holders visually  The video above has no explanation of the company or product due to the fact it will be aired at a specific business event. This means, the people there, who it is aimed at will already know what the company is. This video is used as a means of promoting the company and displaying there professionalism. As you can see the video above fulfils this criteria by presenting a slick looking video with clips of the company in action. This makes the company stand out from other companies who don't seem as professional.

Internal training



An internal training video is normally used to train employees and employers within various industry. The purpose is to show the viewer what is expected and what they need to do in order to be successful in the field. They can be used in a range of ways such as safety training, training for the specific job or advice for working within the sector. As you can see from the video above a very casual and chatty approach is used within these videos. This can be seen through the way in which the actor is speaking to the viewers. She is faced at the camera using open body language and speaking in a friendly tone. This helps the viewer feel more comfortable, therefore willing to take in the information, as they can relate to the people within the video. This idea of helping the viewer relate to the topics discussed in the video is reinforced by the scenarios involved. The role-plays in which the actors use are involving a range of people of different social statuses. This engages a range of audiences by presenting them with relatable scenarios. The overall purpose of using these techniques is to keep the viewer engaged, so they will readily acknowledge the information. This means, that less psychical training is needed due to the ideals portrayed in the training video.

Show-reels




Show-reels are used for a variety of reasons, these are mainly revolving around the idea of promoting the company or person. They will consist of an array of clips showcasing the skilfulness of a company and what they are capable of. The clips used will almost always be of the companies most highly credited accolades. This means most show reel will include work which they have done for huge corporate companies and clients. This shows that they have worked for big names and have a good insight into the industry as well as a range of connections. As you can see, the video above is a show-reel created for a production company. Therefore, their target audience will be companies interested in reinforcing there brand name or number consumers through the use of a video package. As with most show-reels the one above is fast-paced and has small clips of highly credited projects they have worked on. It shows mainly the most exciting parts and always includes the company whom they worked for if necessary. This is so that anyone interested in commissioning them will know that they have experience working with well known businesses.

Event coverage




An event coverage video is used as a means of developing the summary of a specific event in a easily consumable video package. This gives individuals who did not attend the event the opportunity to watch the highlights of the event. A video like this may also be used for people who are not already interested in the company or business. Therefore, seeing a video of an event in which the company has held may increase there interest in the business. Therefore, the target audience for a video like this can be anyone that may be a possible customer. This could range from key stake-holders to anyone in the general public. As you can see from the video above an event overage video will normally consist of the highlights of the particular event. It will also include a number of vox pops or testimonies from important figure within the company which are holding the event. This gives the viewer  better idea of who runs the company and what to expect from it. However this can vary depending on what the specific event is. For instance, a video covering a music festival may not include many vox pops or interview's  Rather, it may show the event itself and showcase the intensity as well as the talent performing. How the event is presented on the video relies solely on what the event is. An event coverage video will normally be published on the internet as well as shown at any other events related to the event in the video. Getting the video out there increases the brands identity by portraying what they are all about by the type of events in which they are holding.

The development of technology and the effect it has had on media communications

With the boom of the internet and modern technology, the way in which we consume media products has changed dramatically. With the internet feeding us an endless sea of information it has become more difficult for companies to stand out amongst the rest of their industry. This is why the majority of companies have had to adapt to these changes through the use of social networking and various other methods of media communication. This is publicising corporate and promotional videos to the internet has now became an essential part of a businesses growth. Due to this, many corporate videos will be made mainly for digital formats. This means that people can consume them in a variety of ways whether it be on there mobile device or computer. 



As you can see from the video above, with the rise of modern technology a massive amount of companies use digital graphics and animated logos to advertise their brand. This is effective due to the fact you can make an animated logo unique. This is due to the amount of variables and possibilities which can be added to a digital graphic in order to make it original. This helps reinforce a brands identity because viewers will know instantly through the graphic who the company are.

Codes and conventions of corporate and promotional video

The codes and conventions which need to be taken into account relies heavily on the video which needs to be made. This is so that the finished product can meet its purpose, the target audience and the clients needs. Overall, a corporate video needs to follow the general 'feel' or mise-en-scene needed to promote the brands identity.

Common codes and conventions used in corporate and promotional video 

- Animated graphics used efficiently in order to reinforce the brands specific identity.

- the use of a presenter to provide testimonies on the specific company or brand. A suitable presenter or personality should be used to convey the type of company. Using a suitable presenter for this will also reinforce brand identity. 

- Interviews or vox pops with important stake-holders in order to show the importance of there company within the specific industry.

- Scenarios or role-plays to show the general ideals of the specific company and help the viewer relate to the scenes.

- Voice overs or a narrator to channel information to the viewers through the use of visuals and audio.

- A suitable music track in order to set the correct atmosphere which is needed for what the company is trying to portray through their video.

- Using graphics as a means of giving more information to the viewer.

Production process

Pre-production - This is the stage in which all of the planning and groundwork for the video takes place. This will mainly consist of paperwork and resolving logistical problems such as booking locations. This stage will also be used to plan story boards write the narrative or story of the video and overall plan what is going to be in the video.

Production -  This is where the production of the video itself will take place. The production team will begin filming, recruiting actors and getting any other aspects of the video produced.

Post-production - This stage will consist of adding the finishing touches to the video such as reviewing the footage, adding voice overs and editing. Reviewing the footage is important so the production team can see if any re-shoots are necessary.